Citizenship by descent, also known as citizenship by ancestry or under the principle of jus sanguinis (right of blood), allows individuals to claim citizenship through their ancestral lineage and family ties rather than their place of birth. If your parents, grandparents, or even great-grandparents were citizens of a certain country, you may be eligible to apply.
This guide explains what citizenship by descent is, how it works, and which countries offer it, especially in Europe. We cover eligibility requirements, how many generations back you can claim, and the documents you’ll need.
You’ll also learn about the benefits of obtaining citizenship through ancestry, such as dual citizenship options, visa-free travel, and the ability to live and work abroad, along with answers to the most frequently asked questions.
Citizenship by descent, also called citizenship by ancestry, is a legal process that allows individuals to acquire nationality through their family bloodline rather than their place of birth. The concept is based on jus sanguinis, a Latin term meaning “right of blood.”
This pathway is especially common in countries with large diasporas, such as Italy, Ireland, and Poland, which aim to maintain cultural and historical ties with descendants abroad.
For many, claiming citizenship by descent offers not only a chance to reconnect with heritage but also practical benefits like dual nationality, visa-free travel, and work rights in the country of origin.
Jus sanguinis explained
The principle of jus sanguinis is what underpins most citizenship by descent laws worldwide. It states that citizenship is passed down from parent to child, regardless of where the child is born. For example, if an Italian citizen moves abroad and has children, those children, and sometimes even grandchildren, may still have the right to Italian citizenship under jus sanguinis.
Each country sets its own rules on how far this bloodline right extends. Some limit it to one generation (parents only), while others allow claims through grandparents or great-grandparents. In certain cases, such as Italy, there is no generational limit as long as the chain of citizenship was never broken by naturalization in another country.
Citizenship by descent vs. birthright citizenship vs. naturalization
Understanding the difference between citizenship by descent and naturalization helps clarify your options:
Citizenship by descent (jus sanguinis): Acquired through bloodline. You inherit the right to citizenship if your parent, grandparent, or sometimes great-grandparent was a citizen of that country.
Birthright citizenship (jus soli): Granted based on birthplace. For example, the United States and Canada offer automatic citizenship to anyone born on their soil, regardless of their parents’ nationality.
Naturalization: Obtained after meeting residency, language, and integration requirements in a country, often after living there for several years. Unlike descent, this process is not automatic and usually requires active application and approval.
Citizenship by descent is often faster and less costly than naturalization, as it does not usually require a residency period or language test. However, it demands strong documentary evidence to prove your lineage.
How does citizenship by descent work?
The process of claiming citizenship by descent involves proving your family connection to a citizen of the country and meeting that country’s specific legal requirements. Typically, this means gathering official records, such as birth certificates, marriage certificates, and proof of your ancestor’s citizenship, and submitting an application through the relevant immigration authority or consulate.
Most applications are processed by:
Immigration departments or ministries of interior.
Embassies or consulates abroad, if applying from outside the country.
While the core principle is the same worldwide, each country sets different eligibility rules and document standards. For example, Ireland allows citizenship claims through grandparents, while Italy now limits eligibility to applicants with a genuine link, meaning at least one parent or grandparent born in Italy, or a parent who resided there for at least two years prior to the applicant’s birth.
Who qualifies for citizenship by descent?
Eligibility requirements depends on your relationship to an ancestor who was a citizen of the target country and whether that lineage remained intact. Most countries require proof through legal documents, and many have rules about whether an ancestor renounced their citizenship.
How many generations back can you claim?
This varies significantly:
One generation (parents only): Common in many countries.
Two generations (grandparents): Countries like Ireland extend eligibility to grandparents.
Three generations (great-grandparents): Hungary, and some Latin American countries allow this under specific conditions.
In rare cases, there is no generational limit, as long as each ancestor maintained citizenship.
Can adopted children qualify?
Most countries allow legally adopted children to claim citizenship by descent, provided the adoption meets the legal requirements of both the adopting and granting country.
Do you need to speak the language?
Unlike naturalization, most citizenship by descent programs do not require a language test. However, some countries may require basic language knowledge for full rights or future extensions.
Eligibility Criteria for Citizenship by Descent
Different countries have different rules for granting citizenship by descent. Some may not allow it for children born abroad, for parents who didn’t live in the country for a required number of years before the child’s birth, or for specific relatives. Regardless, applicants must provide sufficient evidence of their ancestry.
Here are the two most common criteria for citizenship through ancestry:
Direct lineage: To be eligible for citizenship by descent, individuals usually need to establish a direct ancestral connection to a citizen or national of the country in question.
Proof of ancestry: Proving ancestral lineage requires legal documentation to prove the ancestral link. General legal documents include the ancestor’s birth certificate, marriage records, or other official documents that verify the ancestor’s citizenship and connection to the applicant. All the required documents in foreign languages must also be legalized before submission.
Parentage requirements
Requirements
Purpose
Birth Certificate
Confirms your birth details and your parents’ identities.
Parents’ Marriage Certificate
Establishes the marital relationship between your parents (if applicable).
Parents’ Citizenship Evidence
Proves your parent’s citizenship status at the time of your birth.
Age considerations
Scenario
Details
Required Documents
At the Time of Birth
If born to a citizen parent, you are typically eligible regardless of your birthplace.
Birth Certificate, Parents’ Citizenship Evidence.
After Birth
Citizenship may be claimed after birth but before a set age (usually under 18).
Note: In special cases, such as when parents are deceased, death certificates may be required to establish eligibility for citizenship by descent. In some countries, legal guardians can transfer eligibility if the parents are unavailable or deceased.
Step-by-Step Application Process: Citizenship by Descent
Wondering how to apply for citizenship by descent step by step? While the exact application process varies by country, most follow a similar structure that involves proving your lineage, gathering legal documents, and submitting an application through the appropriate government authority. Below is a detailed guide to help you navigate the process effectively.
Step 1: Confirm your eligibility
Start by researching the specific requirements of the country you’re applying to. Each nation has different generational limits and conditions. For example:
Ireland allows claims through grandparents for Irish citizenship through ancestry.
Italy now requires a genuine link, such as a parent or grandparent born in Italy.
Poland requires that your ancestor never renounced citizenship.
Check if there are any additional requirements, such as proof of cultural ties, language ability, or restrictions based on your ancestor’s naturalization status.
Step 2: Gather ancestral records
Documentation is the backbone of this application process. Commonly required records to prove ancestral lineage include:
Birth certificates for you, your parents, and the ancestor through whom you claim citizenship.
Marriage certificates to establish family links.
Proof of ancestor’s citizenship, such as a passport, national ID, or naturalization documents.
Death certificates, if applicable.
Ensure that all documents are official copies, not photocopies, and that they match exactly (names, dates, and places).
Step 3: Authenticate and translate your documents
Most countries require documents issued abroad to be apostilled or legalized for international use. Additionally, any document not in the official language of the target country must be translated by a certified translator. Failure to meet these requirements is a common cause of application delays or rejections.
Step 4: Submit your application
Once your documentation is complete:
Submit the application to the immigration authority, ministry of interior, or designated department in the country.
If you live abroad, you’ll likely apply through a consulate or embassy.
Some countries allow online pre-registration, while others require in-person submission.
Expect to pay application process fees, which vary by country and complexity.
Step 5: Wait for processing
Processing times can range from a few months to several years, depending on the country and the completeness of your application. For example:
Ireland typically processes Foreign Births Register applications in 12 to 18 months.
Poland and Italy can take several years due to high demand and extensive verification.
Step 6: Receive your citizenship certificate and passport
If your application is approved, you’ll receive a citizenship certificate or similar document confirming your new nationality. After that, you can apply for a passport and enjoy the benefits of dual citizenship, such as visa-free travel and the right to live and work abroad.
Pro tip: While it’s possible to handle the process independently, working with an immigration lawyer or citizenship specialist can save time, reduce errors, and help you navigate complex legal requirements. This is especially useful if your case involves multiple generations, missing documents, or countries with strict verification procedures.
Required Documents for Citizenship by Descent
Documentation is the foundation of a successful application. The most common requirements include:
Birth certificates for you and each ancestor linking the family line
Marriage certificates to establish relationships
Proof of ancestor’s citizenship (passport, national ID, or naturalization documents)
Death certificates, if needed
Certified translations if documents are not in the official language
Apostille or legalization for international validity
Do you need a DNA test?
In most cases, DNA testing is not required. Countries rely on official documentation to establish lineage. A DNA test may help confirm biological relationships, but it is rarely accepted as a substitute for legal records.
Special Limitations of Citizenship by Descent
Generational limits: Some countries limit how many generations can pass down citizenship.
Residency requirements: Ancestors may need to have lived in the country for a set time before the descendant’s birth.
Type of citizenship: Citizenship passed down depends on whether the ancestor was a citizen by birth or naturalization.
Maternal/paternal lineage: Some countries only allow citizenship through the father, not the mother.
Renounced citizenship: Ancestors must not have given up their citizenship or taken another citizenship.
Legal changes: Historical events and law updates can affect eligibility, and getting professional and legal advice can speed up the process.
Birth abroad: Birth abroad complicates citizenship claims due to varying laws. For example, U.S. children born overseas must prove their parents lived in the U.S. before their birth. It’s more complex for those born on military bases or U.S. vessels.
Which countries offer citizenship by descent?
Many nations recognize the principle of jus sanguinis, allowing individuals to reclaim citizenship through their ancestors. These laws are especially common in Europe, where countries aim to preserve cultural ties with descendants of emigrants.
Citizenship by descent: Countries in Europe
Country
Generational Limit
Key Conditions
Language Requirement
Notes
Italy
Parents or grandparents only
Must show genuine link: parent/grandparent born in Italy or parent resided in Italy for 2 years prior to birth; processed centrally in Rome
No
Unlimited jus sanguinis ended in 2025; genuine link now mandatory
Ireland
Parents, grandparents (some great-grandparents via Foreign Births Register)
Register in Foreign Births Register for further generations
No
Popular for Irish diaspora
Poland
Typically 2–3 generations
Ancestor must have been a Polish citizen after 1920 and never renounced citizenship
No
Documentation can be challenging
Germany
Parents, grandparents (restitution rules apply)
Proof of lineage; restitution for descendants of Holocaust victims
No
Special restitution law applies
Hungary
No strict limit
Prove Hungarian ancestry and basic language ability
Yes (basic Hungarian)
Offers cultural connection path
Lithuania
Parents, grandparents, great-grandparents
Ancestor left Lithuania before 1990; proof required
No
Generous for diaspora community
Latvia
Parents, grandparents
Restitution for families leaving during Soviet occupation
No
Popular for Baltic heritage applicants
Estonia
Parents, grandparents
Restitution law for descendants of former citizens
No
Complex process due to Soviet history
Croatia
No strict limit (proof required)
Proof of cultural connection required
No
Focused on heritage ties
Slovakia
Parents, grandparents
Proof of Slovak origin
No
Recent legal reforms
Slovenia
Parents, grandparents
Proof of connection and intent
No
Heritage-based route
Portugal
Parents, grandparents
Extended eligibility for Sephardic Jewish descendants
No
Strong interest for Sephardic heritage
Spain
Parents, grandparents (special rules for Sephardic Jews)
Temporary programs for Sephardic Jews; otherwise limited
No
Program limited to specific cases
Romania
No strict limit
Proof of Romanian ancestor and lineage
No
Common among Moldovan applicants
Bulgaria
Parents, grandparents
Ancestral documentation required
No
Simpler in Balkan region
Greece
Parents, grandparents
Proof of Greek origin and cultural ties
No
Emphasizes cultural roots
Citizenship by descent: Countries outside Europe
Country
Generational Limit
Key Conditions
Language Requirement
Notes
Israel
No strict limit (Jewish ancestry)
Law of Return grants citizenship to Jewish descendants worldwide
No
Extends to Jewish diaspora worldwide; includes children and grandchildren
Argentina
No strict limit
Proof of Argentine ancestry; birth registration in Argentine civil registry
No
Highly flexible for descendants
Brazil
No strict limit
Proof of Brazilian ancestor; birth registration in Brazil
No
Generous policy for returning nationals
Mexico
Parents or grandparents
Proof of Mexican origin through parent or grandparent
No
Strong cultural policy for descendants abroad
Chile
Parents or grandparents
Proof of Chilean ancestry
No
Application possible with ancestral evidence
Uruguay
Parents or grandparents
Proof of Uruguayan ancestry and cultural ties
No
Common among diaspora communities
Peru
Parents or grandparents
Ancestry documented through birth and marriage certificates
No
Limited awareness but active legal path
Colombia
Parents or grandparents
Proof of Colombian ancestor
No
Recognized legal route for descendants
Paraguay
Parents or grandparents
Proof of Paraguayan ancestor; cultural connection emphasized
No
Common in South American ancestry claims
Armenia
Parents, grandparents
Proof of Armenian heritage
No
Focused on repatriation for diaspora
Lebanon
Parents, grandparents
Proof of Lebanese origin; often requires family records
No
Important for maintaining cultural identity
South Africa
Parents, grandparents
Proof of South African ancestry and documentation
No
Primarily heritage connection basis
Benefits of Acquiring Citizenship by Descent
Acquiring citizenship by descent provides far more than just a legal status; it opens the door to a wide range of personal, professional, and financial advantages.
Dual citizenship opportunities
One of the most significant benefits is the ability to hold dual citizenship, allowing you to retain your original nationality while enjoying the rights and privileges of another. Many countries that recognize citizenship by descent do not require you to renounce your existing citizenship, giving you the flexibility to live, work, and travel between both nations. This is especially valuable for individuals seeking global mobility or security during uncertain times.
Visa-free travel and enhanced mobility
Holding a second passport, especially from an EU member state, can dramatically improve your travel freedom. For example, EU citizenship by descent provides visa-free or visa-on-arrival access to over 180 countries worldwide, including unrestricted movement across the Schengen Zone. This level of mobility can simplify international business, tourism, and relocation, offering convenience and peace of mind.
Right to live, work, and study abroad
Citizenship by descent often grants the same rights as native-born citizens, including the ability to live, work, and study without restrictions. For those obtaining EU citizenship through ancestry, this means access to 27 member states for employment opportunities, affordable education, and public healthcare systems, benefits that are typically unavailable to non-citizens.
Reconnect with your heritage
Beyond practical benefits, claiming citizenship through ancestry offers a profound sense of cultural and personal connection. It enables individuals to legally restore ties with their ancestral homeland, participate in cultural programs, and even reclaim property or inheritance rights that may have historical significance.
Pass citizenship to future generations
Perhaps the most enduring benefit is the ability to pass citizenship on to your children and grandchildren, ensuring that future generations can enjoy the same advantages. This creates lasting family benefits, giving your descendants opportunities for global education, employment, and security.
A modern mobility strategy
The Global Intelligence Unit identifies this trend as part of “adaptive citizenship”, a redefinition of nationality as a strategic, transnational tool rather than a static legal identity. As the BeGlobal podcast (by Global Citizen Solutions) about Adaptive Citizenship is Transforming How We Navigate Global Opportunities posits, “These evolving pathways for granting citizenship represent a significant shift in breaking the traditional glass ceiling of nation-states.”
This means that claiming citizenship through ancestry is no longer just about cultural ties; it’s a deliberate strategy for security, mobility, and lifestyle diversification.
Common Challenges of Citizenship by Descent and How to Avoid Them
While citizenship by descent is often seen as one of the most accessible pathways to a second passport, the process can be surprisingly complex. Applicants frequently encounter obstacles that lead to delays or even outright denial. Understanding these common issues, and how to address them, can significantly increase your chances of success.
1. Missing or incomplete documentation
One of the most frequent challenges is gathering the necessary documents. Most countries require an unbroken chain of official records, such as birth and marriage certificates, to prove your lineage. Unfortunately, older documents may have been lost, destroyed, or never digitized in the first place. Civil wars, natural disasters, and incomplete historical archives can further complicate matters.
How to avoid it: Start early by collecting as many family records as possible. Contact national archives, church registries, and local municipal offices in your ancestor’s country. Hiring a professional genealogist or legal expert can help uncover hard-to-find records.
2. Language barriers and legalization requirements
Even if you have the right documents, they often need to be translated into the official language of the granting country and legalized through an apostille or other certification process. Mistakes in translations or missing seals can result in application rejection.
How to avoid it: Use certified translators and ensure all documents meet the legal requirements for apostille or consular legalization. Double-check country-specific standards before submission.
3. Changing citizenship laws
Citizenship regulations can change with little notice. For instance, Italy recently introduced “genuine link” requirements, limiting eligibility to parents or grandparents born in Italy, whereas previously there was no generational limit. Other countries occasionally tighten rules or add residency requirements, impacting eligibility requirements.
How to avoid it: Always verify the most recent laws and regulations on official government websites or consult with an immigration attorney who specializes in citizenship by ancestry.
4. Long processing times
Some countries, like Italy and Poland, can take several years to process applications due to high demand and administrative backlog. If you’re applying through a consulate abroad, wait times can be even longer.
How to avoid it: Prepare your application thoroughly to minimize delays caused by missing information. Submitting complete and well-organized documentation is key. In some cases, using a legal representative in the country of origin can speed up the process.
5. Proving eligibility beyond generations
While many people believe that having an ancestor from a certain country guarantees eligibility, this isn’t always true. Some laws only recognize citizenship through parents or grandparents, while others impose conditions such as whether your ancestor renounced their citizenship or moved abroad before a certain date.
How to avoid it: Research the specific generational limit for your target country and confirm whether there are any conditions related to naturalization or residency. Countries like Ireland allow claims through grandparents, while others like Hungary or Romania may require proof of cultural ties or language knowledge.
6. Financial and legal costs
Although cheaper than most other routes, applying for citizenship by descent still involves expenses for certified translations, apostilles, legal fees, and government application charges. Missteps can lead to additional costs.
How to avoid it: Budget for the process in advance and consider consulting a legal specialist to avoid costly errors. While this adds an upfront cost, it can save time and prevent rejection.
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Citizenship by descent, also called citizenship by ancestry, is a legal principle where nationality is passed down through bloodline rather than birthplace.
It allows individuals to claim citizenship based on the status of their parents, grandparents, or sometimes great-grandparents.
How does citizenship by descent work?
It works by proving your direct lineage to a citizen of the country in question. Most countries require applicants to provide official documents, such as birth and marriage certificates, that establish an unbroken ancestral link.
How can I acquire citizenship through ancestry?
To obtain citizenship through ancestry:
Trace your lineage to an eligible ancestor.
Gather legal documents (birth and marriage certificates, passports).
Submit your application to the country’s immigration authority or local consulate.
Which countries offer citizenship by descent?
Many countries grant citizenship by descent. Popular options include Ireland (grandparents or even great-grandparents), Italy, Poland, Germany, and Greece.
Other countries outside Europe, such as Israel and Argentina, also have ancestry-based programs.
How many generations back can I claim citizenship by descent?
This varies by country. Some nations limit it to parents or grandparents, while others, like Poland, allow claims through great-grandparents or even earlier if the lineage is well documented.
Can I get citizenship through my great-grandparents?
Yes, in some countries. For example, Italy allows claims through great-grandparents if no generational link was broken by naturalization.
Ireland also permits claims through a grandparent, and in some cases, via the Foreign Births Register for further generations.
Do I need a DNA test for citizenship by descent?
Usually not. Most countries rely on legal documentation, such as birth and marriage certificates, to prove ancestry. A DNA test may support your claim but is rarely accepted as a primary requirement.
What documents do I need for citizenship by descent?
Typical document for citizenship by ancestry include:
Birth certificates for you and your ancestor.
Marriage certificates linking the family line.
Proof of your ancestor’s citizenship (passport, naturalization papers).
Legalized translations and apostille certifications, if required.
Do European countries allow citizenship by descent?
Yes. Countries like Ireland, Italy, Poland, Germany, and Portugal have well-established ancestry programs.
Obtaining EU citizenship by descent provides visa-free travel and work rights across the Schengen Zone.
Can I have dual citizenship if I acquire citizenship by descent?
In most cases, yes. However, this depends on your current nationality and the laws of the country granting you citizenship.
Some countries require renunciation of your original nationality, while others permit dual citizenship.
What are the benefits of citizenship by descent?
Benefits include:
Visa-free travel and expanded global mobility.
Right to live and work in the granting country (and EU if applicable).
Access to healthcare and education.
Ability to pass citizenship to future generations.
